The Dangers of Pharmaceutical Waste in Water

 

How do you think excess pharmaceutical waste is disposed of? You may not notice it in your water, but pharmaceutical waste has been contaminating fresh water. When people need to dispose of drugs they are no longer using, instead of contacting a pharmacy, most people will simply flush the pills down the toilet. Where do they go after being flushed down the toilet? They do not go into a special treatment plant, but into our supply of water. When they drink a glass of water, some people are unwittingly taking pills that were not prescribed to them. This can be extremely dangerous because ingesting foreign medications can lead to extreme side effects, and possibly death. The waste of certain drugs have been identified to cause breast and prostate cancer, as well as some neurological disorders. Pharmaceutical wastes in the water supply do not occur only in developing countries. In the United States, many people are faced with this problem. Researchers have identified unwanted traces of pharmaceutical drugs in around 40 million Americans. When the Associative Press National Investigative Team researched the presence of pharmaceuticals in public drinking water in 2008,  they found that traces of anti-anxiety pills were found in water used by over 18 million people in California. They also found mood-stabilizing medicines in water used by 850, 000 people in New Jersey. According to the AP, pharmaceutical waste has been shown to impede the growth of kidney cells, cause inflammation of blood cells, and cause cancer cells to spread faster. These ailments can be fatal.

 

As well as harming humans, pharmaceutical waste in water can harm animals, disrupting ecosystems. Drugs ingested by fish cause feminization of male fish. This prohibits males(or former males) from mating thus causing a decrease in number of eggs and population. As well as impacting the fish, the decline of the fish population has a negative effect on the organisms who prey on them, causing those predators to starve. Species on which major food chains rely -- such as zooplankton and earthworms are also threatened by pharmaceutical waste. This is tremendously worrisome, because if the species at the bottom of the food chain are threatened, the rest of the food chain that relies on these species – including humans and much of the food we eat - is also in jeopardy. This is happening in not only one, small stream. According to the EPA, pharmaceuticals are present in “any water body influenced by raw or treated sewage, including rivers, streams, ground water, coastal marine environments, and many drinking water sources”.

The U.S. Geological Survey found low levels of pharmaceuticals in 80 percent of the rivers and streams sampled, in 1999 and 2000.

 If you have any unwanted medications, DO NOT flush them down the toilet or even throw them in the trash! Instead, contact the place where you purchased them from, or another pharmacy. Before trying to dispose of your excess medication, read the direction on the label, in case they provide some guidance. Most treatment plants do not have the technology to filter waste from water, which is why, even after treatment, chemicals from drugs still remain in the water. Hopefully, in the future, all residue of medications in water will be eliminated, and places to deposit unwanted remains of medications will expand to every pharmacy.

Chapter 4: Success ... or Not?

      

  I plummeted head-first towards the ground. I had to come up with something to do before it was too late! Then, I flipped so that I could land on my feet. I came down with sudden shock on my rear paws. Ignoring my tingling legs, I sprang off the ground and shot in the air towards the trapeze. I sucked in my breath. I sailed over the stage, and landed straight on the trapeze platform. It wobbled and teetered. I tried to soothe my violent jitters. I began pushing and rocking, starting the trapeze. Then, I flew over the audience, clinging tightly to the ropes. My ears whisked back in the whizzing air currents. Now was my only chance. As the trapeze swung back, I leapt straight off of the trapeze and landed on my front paws. My ears tried to block the sounds of the pounding paws of everyone else, performing vaults on the high beam.

           Reaching behind me, I stretched my body and let go, performing a perfect back flip. I felt myself gaining speed, until I was accelerating uncontrollably. Pressing hard, I slammed my feet into the wood, and felt myself rocketing and spinning through the air. The audience cheered wildly. I balanced myself on one claw, and began spinning on one leg. I inclined to one side as I struggled to maintain balance. The beads on my costume reflected the light, beaming prismatic patterns on the walls and ceiling. I gasped for breath. I couldn't hold this pirouette for much longer! Then, Felicia leaped to my rescue. I was swept up by a cloud of cats as they spun with me, motions synchronized. Then, using but one paw, Felicia flung me to the leaping platform.

            I angled my body in such a way so that the light from my costume could dazzle and blind the audience, who had fallen silent in anticipation. Pammy and Felicia jumped atop my outstretched arms and dove off.  Then, I catapulted through the air... and watched in horror as I approached the end of the stage. Unable to break my fall, I zoomed, twisting and turning into the audience. Tears welled up in my eyes at my failure. I would never be an acrobat! The Flying Felinis had been aspiring to reach the championships ever since they were founded, and I had crushed their desire. Then, a sudden sensation overcame my fear and sorrow. Someone caught me, and was passing me around! They did not even realize that I had made a terrible mistake! Renewed hope filled my heart. I sprang into the air, and landed right on the high platform. 

          The music drew to a halt. "Intermission!", Felicia blared through her bullhorn. "We did it!" I clashed paws with everyone. "You were sensational!" We triumphantly exited to enjoy some scrumptious spider sausages. Felicia scrambled after me, coin purse in hand. "Rides! 2 cars for 2 available!" "Come on!" I darted towards the sign and deposited some money. The roller coaster lurched forward. It gained speed rapidly, zipping over hills. I shrieked as I was turned up-side-down for a brief moment. With one final plummet, the roller coaster lurched to a stop. "The show will start! Hurry!" Felicia urged me forward, not minding my state of dizziness. Once we arrived, the lights were out, and I could barely discern the shapes of the other cats, setting out the sheet.

           The lights flicked on. The audience gasped to see a giant, white sheet in the center of the stage. Then, two cats darted from the sides. I sprang upwards, letting the sheet catch an air current. I began spinning, sheet swirling and spiraling above me. Then, Felicia leaped up, and snatched the top of the sheet away, straight from my grasp. One by one, we all leaped over Felicia and the sheet, forming a moving arc of cats. My mind pounded in concentration. If I made one tiny mistake, the whole act would be ruined. Then, Felicia let go of the sheet, and I sprang on top. I appeared to float gracefully on the sheet as it touched down with only the faintest sound. 

         Finally, it was time for the penultimate act. The group dance. I posed at the center of the group, radiating blinding beams of light. The music started abruptly as we began leaping over each other. Thump. Bounce. Thump. My footsteps fell into the rhythm of the music. Now came my most favorite part of the dance. I whirled around and tapped the closest cat. Coincidentally, I had tapped Crackers. We began swatting at each other to the beat of the music. I parried. Crackers, in turn, parried. At the final 'Boom' of the song, the dance was over. Now it was time for my solo. Before, when I was in a group, my mistakes would be masked. Now it was as if I were under a microscope. Every tiny mistake would be magnified. "Pounce, you've practiced this many times." Felicia gave e a reassuring pat and my favorite catnip-salmon treat. I politely refused it, for my stomach churned like a bucket of sloshing water. I groped in the dark for the beam, paws jittering. 

Will Pounce make it through this last act? Find out in the next chapter!

The Acrobatics Competition

       
 Crackers led me out of a dense thicket of trees, leaping over logs and small puddles. Finally, the forest came to an abrupt stop, and the tops of buildings were barely visible on the horizon. We dashed over as fast as our legs could carry us, until we arrived in the bustling streets, out of breath. We had happened to stumble into a restaurant. As I regained my breath, I overheard a snatch of someone ordering: "The giant grilled salmon, please." My mouth watered as I thought of the succulent steaming salmon. I dragged Crackers towards that table, licking my mouth in eager anticipation. "What are we waiting for? This way!" Crackers beckoned me towards the self-serve yogurt shop.

 I reached up, trying to grab the start lever. I braced my back legs, ready to leap. Then, my paws slammed down on the start lever. Out burst thick ribbons of mango frozen yogurt. Next, I repeated this process with the coconut, pineapple, and strawberry. We sneaked out of a back door and lapped up the contents of our overflowing containers. Once I had frozen my jaws shut, we headed back to the restaurant, where the server was just laying out platters of sizzling pink salmon. One platter was placed right before my nose! Quickly, I snatched the piece of salmon, and threw it down to Crackers, who eyed it greedily. We scampered into the bushes, where we playfully squabbled over it. I stared at the shop across from me. Those pillows in the windows appeared so inviting and fluffy -- the perfect bed! I found a particularly large black pillow and settled on it blissfully, turning it into a buff pillow. I woke up to a loud crash. 

Crackers stared up at me, guiltily, a shattered vase at her feet. "Crackers!" I tried to sound as harsh as possible, but the giggle in my voice escaped. I, too knew how hard it was to keep out of mischief. Then, I grew aware of the imminent danger. Footsteps pounded on the floor, approaching. "Quick!", I whispered. "Hey! Get back here!", someone shouted. Crackers flew out, an ironed, white sheet billowing out behind her. People stared, gaping wide-eyed. "Where on Earth did you get that thing?", Felicia asked. "I'll give it back. But not before we do a routine with it!" With that, everyone came running. We had great fun, hiding under it and using it like a parachute. I excelled particularly in riding that 'parachute'. After an afternoon full of surprise pouncing from under the sheet, the sun began to sink behind the clouds. "Come on, Crackers. We must return it. The manager will be gone." Reluctantly, we trudged to the shop. Immediately, I heard the sound of vacuuming and closing cabinets. The manager was still here. I decided to reveal my identity. Sheet in mouth, I leapt to the counter and thrust it towards the manager. 

"You are the thief? Just a mischievous cat? Keep your sheet. You don't have to pay. I can't sell this.", she said disapprovingly, scrutinizing the muddy paw prints. We returned, secretly delighted about our new routine. The next morning, I was rudely shaken awake. "The qualifying match is today!" "It's not even light out.", I groaned while slowly rising. "You are performing as the star! You've been practicing for months, now. I know you can do it." Felicia led me to a door barely wide enough for me to fit through. In the room, boxes of costumes littered the floor. In one corner, there were piles of claw polish, eyeshadow, fur enhancing mousse, and whisker extensions. Felicia launched herself into a box labeled 'Jackets' so that only her tail was sticking up. She tossed a jacket covered in dazzling, sparkling, prismatic beads. "Mine?", I hesitantly faltered forth. "Of course." I stepped into my brilliant costume and admired my reflection.

 "Pounce!" Pammy approached me, makeup in hand. I sat before her for hours, barely tolerating my whiskers being blackened, my eyes outlined in a smoky purple powder, and glitter sprinkled over my face. I gazed at myself. I looked spectacular! I had only been her for two months, but, before my arrival, the Flying Felinis had been practicing for years. I could not disappoint them. I pictured myself at the championships, performing the final 7-foot-high leap. "And in first place... our champion, Pounce!"  A sharp tug on my tail jerked me out of my daydream. "Time to paint our banner!", Isabella snapped. I drenched my paw in purple glitter paint and began to paint the embellishments. Isabella earned the role of painting the letters, due to her flawless calligraphy. In shining gold letters, she painted: "The Fabulous Flying Felinis Performing LIVE Tonight!" 

"Haha, Pounce! Watch out!" A gob of green paint landed with a splat on my head. In response, I loaded my brush and catapulted paint straight at Crackers' ear. After some black paint hit me right where my exquisite makeup was stenciled around my eye, I picked up the whole, full paint can and hurled it at Crackers. She was covered in paint. "Crackers started it!", I choked through the paint. I groaned and growled in dismay when I learned I needed to be bathed, with makeup re-applied. After waiting for an eternity, we were ready to leave. Once we arrived, the pervasive smell of succulent spider sausages caused avalanches in my stomach. I lingered behind, staring longingly at the roller coaster and cable car. I was jerked away. "We'll have fun later." After a great deal of inquiries, we were led to a huge stage, with all sorts of props --- even a fake smoke machine! Flashing lights proclaimed, "Flying Felinis!" 

I gazed at the pulleys, trapezes, and leaping launchpad on the ceiling. "Pounce! Go wire up the lights!" I scrambled for a small door in the wall. Orange, yellow, and red cords dangled from the ceiling. A dashboard of unidentified switches faced me. I flipped one switch, which was met by intense coughing fits. "Stop the smoke!", cam shouts from outside. I flipped another. "Help!" That was the wrong switch, too. Finally, I noticed the tag on one of the wires: "Pull for lights." I tugged it. Immediately, a display of vibrant, neon flashing lights appeared. We were almost ready to start. The seats were filled, and the crowd was roaring. Gangs of squirrels peered down from the trees. The pounding music began to start. I posed, and the lights flicked off. I knew how to do this routine. The lights suddenly flashed, and I sprang to action. I leapt headfirst off the starting platform and began plummeting downwards. My head whirled as all memory I had of this act departed from my mind. Spinning, I found myself heading straight for the ground ... and I was nowhere near the trapeze.

Will the Flying Felinis qualify for the competition they have been dreaming of reaching for years? Find out with the next chapter!

Cat Adventure Story(Chapter 2) ~ The Flying Felinis

      The trapeze took a wild swing as I urged it forward with my paws. Then, the trapeze flew over the elaborate equipment, straight over the forest. This was actually quite enjoyable! I tilted my head into the breeze as the wind whooshed past my body. "Jump!", called Felicia. I stared downwards in disbelief. Was she crazy? I held on tighter as the trapeze rocked to a halt. "Look", said Felicia, annoyed. She shoved me off and effortlessly made the trapeze soar above the trees. Then, she leapt off it and flew through the air, paws outstretched, and landed on her front paws! She scrambled up a ramp without as much as a screech of her claws, and dashed straight off the platform, into everyone's waiting arms. "That's routine one.", she called  out. Determined, I hopped on the trapeze, still uneasy. Suddenly, someone gave me a forceful push. I shrieked and glanced down to see a cat, gazing up at me and grinning mischievously. "I'll tell you when I'm ready for a push!", I called back to that cat, irritably. The trapeze accelerated, and I tilted my head back in the breeze. The wind's breath in my face flicked my whiskers, and I laughed in joy. Without a second thought, I rocketed up in the air, twisting and turning. My heart soared higher than my body as I discovered my new-found passion. 

This is how I picture Crackers!

      Suddenly, interrupting my pleasure, my fall was broken by a soft bed. The ring of cats flipped me towards the ramp, and began leaping in all directions. Now what should I do? Remembering Felicia's performance, I leapt out and attempted to execute the series of back springs. I blindly waved my back legs, groping for the ramp. Then, my claw barely brushed the wooden plank. Up I shot, dashing straight into open air. Spreading my paws, I soared in midair, gliding past the moving mob of cats, until my glorious flight ended with a jolt. I submitted myself to the harsh whacks of paws that tossed me in the air. With a final flourish, I landed on one paw. I glanced nervously at Felicia. Was I good enough? Surprisingly, she was gaping. "I've never seen a cat who performs so beautifully on the first try.", she stammered. "I believe I know who shall be nominated as the star in our performances. Now don't think you're some special prodigy. You still need to practice." Still, I beamed, heart bursting with my praise. 

         "Come on! The qualification performance is next week! Hurry up!" I scrambled after Felicia, and walked to the spot marked 'POUNCE'. In my spot, that cat, Crackers, who had pushed me on the trapeze, was waiting for me. I quailed awkwardly, wondering what to say. "Is this how you welcome all your new members?", I asked, faltering. She chuckled. "Why are you in my spot?", I inquired. "We're dance partners. And I bet you don't even know my name." "It says so right there." I pointed to her spot marking. "If you really want to know my name, it's Pounce." "As you know my name is Crackers, in other words, the chief mischief maker.", she whispered with a grin. I feigned a laugh. The shrill sound of Felicia's whistle penetrated the silence. "Attention!" Her voice blared through a bullhorn. She tugged a frayed cord dangling from the ceiling. Immediately, a tune of chirping crickets filled the air. "Partners!", she cried. We whisked along the wonderfully coated wooden floor, stepping in tune with the music. The whole dance practice was spent over the next song, which was a wild disco. I twirled around until I made Crackers dizzy, and even leaped over her head. At the end, we tied tails, which was a somewhat painful operation. 

      That day, I also distinguished myself at yoga, being the only one to hold the 'Inside out' contortion for a full minute, and be able to fold myself in half. At last, we were dismissed to lunch. A cat named Crumbles was handing out plates of a dish she called tossed mouse. This, as I learned that day, was an overly fancy name for a burnt, olive-green lump. "Don't you have tuna?", I snapped, more menacingly than I intended. Felicia shrugged and crammed the food in her mouth. Silently, I departed from the table and headed to the stream for raw fish. Even though the stream was overflowing with fish, slashing at them with my claws was fruitless. Exasperated, I jumped straight into the water. 

        The cold water gripped me with icy fingers. The current tore at my hold on the bottom and dragged me away. "Help!", I bellowed at the top of my voice. Moments later, Felicia came darting to the shore. She snatched my back and hauled me up. "You'll have to miss afternoon practice." Dejectedly, still with an empty stomach, I shuffled to a patch of sun and stretched out to dry. At the end of practice, I was dry, but somewhat green from algae. "Hey, Pounce!" Crackers prodded me with a claw. "Let's go to town, and see what we can do.", she encouraged, with a wink. Gladly, I accepted her invitation.

What mischief will Crackers lead Pounce into? Find out with the next chapter! 

Cat Adventures Story(Chapter 1) ~ The Beginning of all my Adventures

This is a chapter from a story I wrote about a group of acrobatic cats who make a perilous journey to compete in the acrobatic contest that they have dreamed of winning. Chapters shall be published weekly!

"Grrowlchomp". I, Pounce, delightedly crunched a succulent stalk of the potted palm tree. "No, Pounce! How many time have I told you?" My human servant shoved me off my launchpad to the plant. I had been caught... again. Why must humans be so annoying? Somewhat guiltily, I trudged off to find my kitten sister, Sunny and the other cats. I padded across the marble floors of the sunroom, to Pammy's favorite chair. I did not see the familiar black ear poking from the blanket. Normally, Claude and Prance made a great racket in arguing over the cat food, but I heard not even an echo. Perhaps they were in the courtyard. I stepped through the golden gate, past the majestic, burbling fountain. On opposite sides of the path, there were lavender swings and an awning, threaded with dangling, flowering vines whose fragrant smells filled the air. The buzzing of bees, hurrying from flower to flower droned monotonously. Somewhere in a corner, there was a hive --- Sunny once upset it, making a great racket. I scurried past the jade statue of a unicorn spouting water into a koi pond, until I came to a towering tree turning into brilliant shades of amber and crimson. Squirrels scrambled to collect the acorns that sprinkled the ground. Interrupting my wonder at the lovely landscape, a loud "Meeowl!" penetrated the air. At that, all of my friends -- Pammy, Claude, Prance, and Pauline came darting out of the finely pruned bushes, squabbling over whose turn it was to toss the mouse they had caught. "What was that?", I asked them. "Have you been playing hide-and-seek?", I inquired, knowing that they often played hide-and-seek, but Sunny hid herself so well that no one could find her. "No." I gazed up in the tree, to meet Sunny's frightened gaze staring down at me from the highest branch. She always manages to get herself in trouble! I sighed resignedly at Sunny's mischief, and headed up the tree. Effortlessly, I scooped her in my mouth and tossed her to Prance. "Come on, Pounce, before our human calls us in.", Pammy shoved me forward. "Wait!", Claude cried, hastily depositing the struggling mouse in the sunroom. "A gift for you.", she chuckled, and headed back to join us.

The other cats dashed outside. I looked longingly after them for several minutes. I am the only one who is not allowed outside, because I have been declawed. I spend hours gazing out the window, dreaming fantasies of what life would be like outdoors. I know every dog and cat in the neighborhood, and can recognize all the neighbor's faces - but I have never met any of them. I swatted at a butterfly passing by, but, for the millionth time, found my paw blocked by cold, impenetrable glass. My humans think the outside world is not safe for me, but I know that is not true. They have seen my strength in myriads of times when they touch me in ticklish places. I have been declawed ever since I was a kitten - ever since I climbed the wall in the kitchen. Ever since then, I have yearned for freedom to explore. Every day, I watch my friends bring in mice, grass, flowers, and grasshoppers from outside. The only thing I have ever caught is the pink mouse on a string that the humans taunt me with. I watched as my friends skipped blissfully on the curb, chomping grass along the way. The balloon that contained all my desires for freedom popped. Taking no time to reflect, I dashed out the door - away from the confines of the house, to freedom. Birds chirped melodiously in my ear. I smelled the fresh,crisp air mingling with the scent of freshly chopped grass. Excitement filled my heart, and I darted off to catch up.

 We ran along the sidewalk, nibbling wildflowers and tearing tufts of grass. I challenged Pauline to a curb-race, which she accepted. I positioned myself, ready to take off on the curb, when... I found myself face-to face with a snarling German shepherd. "Run!", I shouted. We bolted straight down the corner, with the irate dog in close pursuit. There was no time to catch my breath. Then, I halted in my tracks when I came to another cat, baring her teeth. If only I hadn't ran along this street! Now, with danger on both sides, I had to steer off the trail. Then, to my great surprise, the cat flicked us behind her with a powerful claw. She raised a paw in the dog's direction and flexed four long, razor-sharp claws. The dog growled, and, defeated, darted backwards. "And who has stumbled on my territory? Normally I don't take kindle to trespassers. I only know how vicious that dog is, and want to prove myself dominant.", she snarled. I bared my own teeth.  "I'm Felicia Fellini, and if you think you can get my territory, I'll prove you wrong.", She flexed that lethal claw of hers. Then, she sprang on me. We fell into a tangle of claws and teeth. I lashed at her with my paws which bore the weight of rocks, deviously ducking her blows. "You fight well. Who are you? I am the leader of a world renowned acrobat team. You are invited to try and join. I don't let in members so easily." I could not believe what I was hearing! "I- I'm Pounce.", I stammered. " And I would be glad to accept your offer." "Meet me tomorrow.", she said, and ran into the shadows. The next day, at daybreak, I bolted out of bed and ran to our meeting place. "Follow me.". Felicia led me through a hidden, winding, muddy path, towards the menacing woods. No one had ever entered there, and for good reason. Sometimes, at night, eerie howls and screams emanated from those woods. Was this cat leading me into a trap? We threaded our way through the underbrush. "Yeow!", I cried. "Are you trying to wake up the coyotes?", Felicia growled. She tore leaves off a branch, and began pressing them on me. I grunted audibly, very much displeased by the large cat sitting on me. "I'm not your pillow!" "Do you want to hurt of nettle all day long?", Felicia retorted. She peeled the leaves off, and my pain vanished. Finally, we came to an untidy campsite. Props and costumes littered the ground, along with other, unidentified debris. Small shelters were leaning on trees. Is this what she called a world-renowned acrobat team? Hanging from a tree was a steaming cauldron, with vile smells spiraling from it. "Crackers!", she shouted. An orange cat with white spots came darting out of a closet. "What is this stew? I'll never appoint you chef again! Throw that in the river!", she ejaculated in disgust. "Now get started." Felicia shoved me towards a rickety-looking trapeze. It wobbled as I tried to hop on. My stomach churned as the trapeze teetered. 

Do you want to know what happens next? Please check next week to find out if Felicia accepts Pounce! How do you picture the characters? Here is how I picture Pounce:

I gave Pounce the same personality as my pet cat, and I picture her in almost the same way, too!

Here is how I picture Sunny:

Here is how I picture Felicia:

or like this:

Volcanoes!

Have you ever wondered what causes volcanoes to sometimes spew sizzling, scarlet lava, and why such eruptions are so different in intensity? The answer lies in gases under tremendous pressure and what type of volcano it is. There are three different types of volcanoes: composite, cinder cone, and shield volcanoes.  Composite volcanoes produce both quiet and explosive eruptions, because they contain alternating layers of lava, cinders, and bombs. Cinders are small pieces of rock, and generally do not cause much damage, but, on the other hand, bombs are rocks ranging from the size of a baseball to the size of a large car. Bombs, ash, and lava erupting from a volcano produce an explosive eruption. Composite volcanoes are often the tallest, and largest types of volcanoes. Shield volcanoes are much less steep than composite volcanoes, and produce only quiet eruptions. Why? Shield volcanoes formed from thin, runny lava flowing, gradually building a gentle slope. This gives the volcano the appearance of a shield. Cinder cone volcanoes form when cinders erupt from the vent of a volcano, piling up around it. Over many years, this produces a steep, yet small volcano.

Notice the layers in composite and cinder cone volcanoes, and the gentle slope of the shield volcano!

Shield Volcano

  

Composite Volcano                        Cinder Cone Volcano

Why do volcanoes erupt? Eruptions occur when dissolved gases in magma are under tremendous pressure. Similar to what happens when you suddenly open a bottle of soda, the magma rushes up through the pipe, or narrow, vertical crack in the volcano, spewing out of the vent. The trapped gases, along with the magma, or now lava, because it has traveled out of the mantle, flow out of the volcano. This creates a pyroclastic flow, a body of toxic gas and ash. These are deadly, wreaking devastation on anything in their path and beyond. Sometimes, as magma is traveling through the vent, it forces itself out of the volcano's sides. The newly formed cracks in the rock are known as side vents. Lava oozing out of the side vents and flowing down the slope is known as a lava flow.

Most volcanoes occur quite close to each other, and on plate boundaries. At such plate boundaries, plates either converge(push together), or diverge(pull apart). Volcanoes are often found on plate boundaries because, on these boundaries, the lithosphere is weak, allowing magma from the asthenosphere to reach the surface. Thus, along plate boundaries, there are volcanic belts, or a series of volcanoes bordering a plate. One of the most famous volcanic belts is the Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes reaching around the Pacific Ocean. The volcanoes on the Ring of Fire formed from a convergent boundary, due to subduction, where part of the oceanic crust sinks beneath a deep-ocean trench. Subduction produces volcanoes when the older, denser plate dives beneath the other, lighter one, forming a deep-ocean trench. Once the plate sinks beneath that trench, it reaches the asthenosphere and melts, forming magma. Once it melts, it is hotter and less dense than the surrounding material. Since materials that are less dense than their environment rise, the magma rises upward, back to Earth’s crust, creating a volcano. These resulting volcanoes form a string of islands called an island arc. Most volcanoes form due to subduction, which is why the majority of volcanoes are located in the Ring of Fire --- because the Pacific Ocean is one of the most active subduction zones.  However, some volcanoes are formed not from subduction but from hot spots, places where magma melts through the crust like a blow torch. These types of volcanoes are often found far from plate boundaries, in the very middle of plates. The islands of Hawaii were formed in this manner, as the Pacific Plate drifted over a hot spot.

Subduction


Perhaps you have heard of the recent volcanic eruption of Mount Sinabung, in the island arc of Indonesia. This composite volcano's eruption surprised both residents and geologists. How can eruptions be predicted so that people know in advance when to evacuate? Geologist use a variety of devices, such as laser-ranging devices, tiltmeters, and spectrometers. Laser-ranging devices detect any slight motion of magma by calculating changes in time needed for a laser beam to travel to a reflector and bounce back. If the distance to the reflector changed, that indicates that the crust is moving, due to the motion of magma. Tiltmeters measure similar movement, but they calculate motion in a very different manner. The most common tiltmeters consist of two bulbs filled with a liquid and connected by a hollow stem, buried underground. When the ground rises or falls, the liquid will flow from one bulb to the other. A scale in each bulb measures the depth of the liquid, and, thus, the severity of the upcoming earthquake or volcanic eruption. Since both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur due to the motion of magma in the mantle, earthquakes are often found to happen very close to volcanoes. If signs of an earthquake are appearing near a volcano, there is an extreme likelihood that the volcano will erupt. As well as using instruments to detect flow of magma, geologists can use monitoring procedures specific to predicting volcanic eruptions, such as investigating the water level in a volcano’s crater lake and escaping gases. However, this gas is very dangerous to sample. Scientists use a spectrometer, an instrument that analyzes light coming through a volcanic plume to detect gas emissions without having to venture near the volcano. Since each type of gas emits its own distinctive light pattern, researchers are able to identify what is coming out of the volcano. Such gas analysis tools helped geologists predict the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, saving countless lives.

Mt. Sinabung belches and blasts billowing blankets of ash and dust

Earth isn't the only place where there are volcanoes. Mars is home to the largest volcano in the whole solar system, Olympus Mons. It is so large that it covers an area as large as Ohio, and nearly 32 kilometers high! Venus shows volcanic history, but today, there is no evidence that any of its volcanoes are still active. We do know that they were once active, because of the 6800-kilometer long lava flow! On Io, one of Jupiter's moons, volcanoes erupt not lava and ash, but sulfur! On Triton, another of Jupiter's moons, volcanoes erupt nitrogen! On Earth, nitrogen is a gas, but Triton is so cold that nitrogen exists as a solid. Scientists hypothesize that Triton's surface absorbs the little heat from the sun. This heat melts some of the nitrogen beneath Triton's surface. The liquid nitrogen then expands, and, due to pressure, erupts. 

Nitrogen geyser on Triton!


Io


Olympus Mons(it's almost as big as Arizona!)

A volcano on Venus!